The essence of equality

Painting of Alexis de Tocqueville by artist Théodore Chassériau.

In 1831, two young French aristocrats, Alexis de Tocqueville and Gustave de Beaumont, set sail for the United States, officially to study U.S. prison policy, but in reality to observe the birth of American democracy. Arriving at a moment when America’s federal and state governments were still in their infancy, they discovered local communities where free and equal citizens were deeply involved in public affairs and ran schools, hospitals, fire departments, and other public services themselves, often through voluntary associations or organizations. Tocqueville returned from his trip deeply impressed and eager to draw lessons that the old European nations could apply. 

A few years later, he published his findings in Democracy in America – a book-length analysis of American society. In his masterpiece, Tocqueville did not limit himself to a political description of U.S. institutions. He sought something deeper: to analyze the American ideal, which he understood to be a democracy based on equality of conditions, individual freedom, and the active participation of citizens in public life. Tocqueville saw that the strength of U.S. democracy lies not only in its institutional framework, but also in the everyday actions of its citizens. This understanding – this conceptual model of American democracy – has, in the years since, had an enormous influence on Europe and the rest of the world. Yet, almost two centuries after Tocqueville’s visit, the reality of the United States today often seems far removed from what he witnessed and described. 

For Tocqueville, the central feature of American democracy was the inevitable march toward the equality of conditions. Unlike 19th century Europe, which was defined by social hierarchies and ruled by various aristocracies, America, as he understood it, was a place where individuals considered themselves equal. This equality did not mean uniformity of wealth or talent. It meant equality of opportunity and equality under the law. 

Tocqueville argued that the equality of conditions is only virtuous if it goes hand in hand with individual freedom and the active participation of citizens in community life. He particularly admired the ability of Americans to organize themselves collectively through associations, local institutions, and civic life. In his view, U.S. democracy was based on a balance between individual independence and collective engagement. The decentralization of power, the importance of local communities, and the prominence of civil society allowed citizens to participate actively in the management of their affairs, thus limiting the risks of state tyranny. This arrangement, in Tocqueville’s view, was the key to American democracy, and it explained the country’s social, economic, and political dynamism.

Copy of Alexis de Tocqueville's "Democracy in America."

Tocqueville was not naïve; he recognized that U.S. democracy had inherent weaknesses and dangers, including the tyranny of the majority, the threat of despotism, the prospect of excessive individualism and citizens’ retreat into their private spheres, and a disconnect between the elites and the people. He feared that a society obsessed with equality and material well-being would gradually sacrifice its political freedom, allowing the state to take on responsibilities that were once assumed by citizens. 

These warnings are strikingly relevant today, for contemporary America is growing increasingly distant from the democratic ideal Tocqueville described. While legal equality has greatly improved since his time – due, above all, to the abolition of slavery and the extension of Civil Rights – the equality of opportunity in America is now seriously challenged by economic and social disparities. The concentration of wealth, the decrease in social mobility, the persistence of racial inequalities, and political violence all threaten the ideal of a society in which everyone has the same opportunities. Too many citizens now feel excluded from the American dream. 

Americans’ participation in civic affairs, which Tocqueville greatly admired, has also diminished. Declining trust in institutions, the growing influence of money on politics, and the intense polarization of society are all leading citizens to turn away from political life. Where Tocqueville saw a country dominated by local associations, organizations, and debates, today’s America has become a more centralized, bureaucratic democracy, heavily influenced by the mass media, social networks, and the interests of technology giants. Individuals now isolate themselves in virtual worlds, cut off from their fellow citizens. This makes them easier to manipulate. 

The ideal of American democracy as described by Tocqueville – in which society is governed through the active participation of free and equal citizens – remains as important today as it ever was. Tocqueville’s characterization offers not just a model but also a mirror through which modern democracies can be analyzed and judged. The gap between this ideal and the current reality of the United States, while worrisome, does not represent a definitive shift that cannot be reversed. It does, however, highlight how hard it is to sustain democratic principles in the long term. Tocqueville’s writing reminds us that democracy must never be taken for granted and that sustaining it requires constant vigilance on the part of both citizens and institutions. I have no doubt that the United States will succeed in doing so. The country, and the world, depend on its success.